Broadly human level AI may be here soon and will have a large impact. Anthropic has a portfolio approach to AI safety, considering both: optimistic scenarios where current techniques are enough for alignment, intermediate scenarios where substantial work is needed, and pessimistic scenarios where alignment is impossible; they do not give a breakdown of probability mass in each bucket and hope that future evidence will help figure out what world we’re in (though see the last quote below). These buckets are helpful for understanding the goal of developing: better techniques for making AI systems safer, and better ways of identifying how safe or unsafe AI systems are. Scaling systems is required for some good safety research, e.g., some problems only arise near human-level, Debate and Constitutional AI need big models, need to understand scaling to understand future risks, if models are dangerous, compelling evidence will be needed.
They do three kinds of research: Capabilities which they don’t publish, Alignment Capabilities which seems mostly about improving chat bots and applying oversight techniques at scale, and Alignment Science which involves interpretability and red-teaming of the approaches developed in Alignment Capabilities. They broadly take an empirical approach to safety, and current research directions include: scaling supervision, mechanistic interpretability, process-oriented learning, testing for dangerous failure modes, evaluating societal impacts, and understanding and evaluating how AI systems learn and generalize.
Select quotes:
“Over the next 5 years we might expect around a 1000x increase in the computation used to train the largest models, based on trends in compute cost and spending. If the scaling laws hold, this would result in a capability jump that is significantly larger than the jump from GPT-2 to GPT-3 (or GPT-3 to Claude). At Anthropic, we’re deeply familiar with the capabilities of these systems and a jump that is this much larger feels to many of us like it could result in human-level performance across most tasks.”
The facts “jointly support a greater than 10% likelihood that we will develop broadly human-level AI systems within the next decade”
“In the near future, we also plan to make externally legible commitments to only develop models beyond a certain capability threshold if safety standards can be met, and to allow an independent, external organization to evaluate both our model’s capabilities and safety.”
“It’s worth noting that the most pessimistic scenarios might look like optimistic scenarios up until very powerful AI systems are created. Taking pessimistic scenarios seriously requires humility and caution in evaluating evidence that systems are safe.”
I’ll note that I’m confused about the Optimistic, Intermediate, and Pessimistic scenarios: how likely does Anthropic think each is? What is the main evidence currently contributing to that world view? How are you actually preparing for near-pessimistic scenarios which “could instead involve channeling our collective efforts towards AI safety research and halting AI progress in the meantime?”
how likely does Anthropic think each is? What is the main evidence currently contributing to that world view?
I wouldn’t want to give an “official organizational probability distribution”, but I think collectively we average out to something closer to “a uniform prior over possibilities” without that much evidence thus far updating us from there. Basically, there are plausible stories and intuitions pointing in lots of directions, and no real empirical evidence which bears on it thus far.
(Obviously, within the company, there’s a wide range of views. Some people are very pessimistic. Others are optimistic. We debate this quite a bit internally, and I think that’s really positive! But I think there’s a broad consensus to take the entire range seriously, including the very pessimistic ones.)
This is pretty distinct from how I think many people here see things – ie. I get the sense that many people assign most of their probability mass to what we call pessimistic scenarios – but I also don’t want to give the impression that this means we’re taking the pessimistic scenario lightly. If you believe there’s a ~33% chance of the pessimistic scenario, that’s absolutely terrifying. No potentially catastrophic system should be created without very compelling evidence updating us against this! And of course, the range of scenarios in the intermediate range are also very scary.
How are you actually preparing for near-pessimistic scenarios which “could instead involve channeling our collective efforts towards AI safety research and halting AI progress in the meantime?”
At a very high-level, I think our first goal for most pessimistic scenarios is just to be able to recognize that we’re in one! That’s very difficult in itself – in some sense, the thing that makes the most pessimistic scenarios pessimistic is that they’re so difficult to recognize. So we’re working on that.
But before diving into our work on pessimistic scenarios, it’s worth noting that – while a non-trivial portion of our research is directed towards pessimistic scenarios – our research is in some ways more invested in optimistic scenarios at the present moment. There are a few reasons for this:
We can very easily “grab probability mass” in relatively optimistic worlds. From our perspective of assigning non-trivial probability mass to the optimistic worlds, there’s enormous opportunity to do work that, say, one might think moves us from a 20% chance of things going well to a 30% chance of things going well. This makes it the most efficient option on the present margin.
(To be clear, we aren’t saying that everyone should work on medium difficulty scenarios – an important part of our work is also thinking about pessimistic scenarios – but this perspective is one reason we find working on medium difficulty worlds very compelling.)
We believe we learn a lot from empirically trying the obvious ways to address safety and seeing what happens. My colleague Andy likes to say things like “First we tried the dumbest way to solve alignment (prompting), then we tried the second dumbest thing (fine tuning), then we tried the third dumbest thing…” I think there’s a lot to be said for “working our way up the ladder of trying dumb things” and addressing harder and harder scenarios as we do so. Earlier techniques are both building blocks and baselines for further research.
A crucial part of many pessimistic scenarios is that “easy safety techniques” appear to work, but then fail in subtle/abrupt ways. Having the “easy safety techniques” is a prerequisite for trying to empirically investigate this. (For example, you might want to do mechanistic interpretability on sophisticated RLHF models and try to learn what’s going on.) Of course, actually recognizing this will be very hard, as we’re about to discuss. But it’s worth noting that this is a prerequisite for empirical attempts, and we believe those attempts are worth making, even though we aren’t sure they’ll succeed!
We also have a lot of work that I might describe as trying to move from optimistic scenarios towards more intermediate scenarios. This includes our process-oriented learning and scalable supervision agendas.
But what are we doing now to address pessimistic scenarios? (Again, remember that our primary goal for pessimistic scenarios is just to recognize that we’re in one and generate compelling evidence that can persuade the world.)
Our work on mechanistic interpretability is deliberately targeted at trying to fill in holes in our portfolio for pessimistic scenarios. We see this as a high-risk, high-reward bet – it may very well not succeed in time to matter, but if it does, it would be a very powerful tool for determining if we were in a pessimistic scenario and providing compelling evidence to the world. See detailed discussion in the post.
Our Testing for Dangerous Failure Modes (eg. trying to find evidence of things like situational awareness from the outside of models) work is useful in a range of scenarios, but seems helpful in a lot of quite pessimistic ones. I think it’s easy to dismiss this work on the basis that, of course, models will just deceive you. But there are a lot of very sophisticated ideas for how to get around this.
One idea is that models may try to deceive you before they can do so effectively. This could be smaller models, or large models earlier in training. (This could even include detecting hints of deceptive behavior in the logits, before it becomes likely behavior!)
Another more complex one is to think of treacherous turns as being kind of like a phase change, and to try to introduce control variables that expand the problem to more dimensions and allow you to safely observe treacherous turns. (For example, you might deliberately give a model weaker supervision in order to see if misalignment develops in weaker models, and then study how this changes as a function of both model capacity and supervision strength.)
A lot of our work in this area involves studying “model organisms” of these failure modes so that we can understand them in models that are much less capable than their overseers.
Our work on Understanding Generalization also aims to provide tools for understanding why models behave the way they do, which might help us recognize deceptively aligned models.
To be clear, we think pessimistic scenarios are, well, pessimistic and hard! These are our best preliminary attempts at agendas for addressing them, and we expect to change and expand as we learn more. Additionally, as we make progress on the more optimistic scenarios, I expect the number of projects we have targeted on pessimistic scenarios to increase.
The weird thing about a portfolio approach is that the things it makes sense to work on in “optimistic scenarios” often trade off against those you’d want to work on in more “pessimistic scenarios,” and I don’t feel like this is really addressed.
Like, if we’re living in an optimistic world where it’s pretty chill to scale up quickly, and things like deception are either pretty obvious or not all that consequential, and alignment is close to default, then sure, pushing frontier models is fine. But if we’re in a world where the problem is nearly impossible, alignment is nowhere close to default, and/or things like deception happen in an abrupt way, then the actions Anthropic is taking (e.g., rapidly scaling models) are really risky.
This is part of what seems weird to me about Anthropic’s safety plan. It seems like the major bet the company is making is that getting empirical feedback from frontier systems is going to help solve alignment. Much of that justification (afaict from the Core Views post) is because Anthropic expects to be surprised by what emerges in larger models. For instance, as this Anthropic paper mentions: models can’t do 3 digit addition basically at all (close to 0% test accuracy) until all of the sudden, as you scale the model slightly, they can (0% to 80% accuracy abruptly). I presume the safety model here is something like: if you can’t make much progress on problems without empirical feedback, and if you can’t get the empirical feedback unless the capability is present to work with, and if capabilities (or their precursors) only emerge at certain scales, then scaling is a bottleneck to alignment progress.
I’m not convinced by those claims, but I think that even if I were, I would have a very different sense of what to do here. Like, it seems to me that our current state of knowledge about how and why specific capabilities emerge (and when they do) is pretty close to “we have no idea.” That means we are pretty close to having no idea about whenand howand why dangerous capabilities might emerge, nor whether they’ll do so continuously or abruptly.
My impression is that Dario agrees with this:
Dwarkesh: “So, dumb it down for me, mechanistically—it doesn’t know addition yet, now it knows addition, what happened?”
Dario: “We don’t know the answer.” (later) “Specific abilities are very hard to predict. When does arithmetic come into place? When do models learn to code? Sometimes it’s very abrupt. It’s kind of like you can predict statistical averages of the weather, but the weather on one particular day is very hard to predict.”
If I put on the “we need empirical feedback from neural nets to make progress on alignment” hat, along with my “prudence” hat, I’m thinking things more like, “okay let’s stop scaling now, and just work really hard on figuring out how exactly capabilities emerged between e.g., GPT-3 and GPT-4. Like, what exactly can we predict about GPT-4 based on GPT-3? Can we break down surprising and abrupt less-scary capabilities into understandable parts, and generalize from that to more-scary capabilities?” Basically, I’m hoping for a bunch more proof of concept that Anthropic is capable of understanding and controlling current systems, before they scale blindly. If they can’t do it now, why should I expect they’ll be able to do it then?
My guess is that a bunch of these concerns are getting swept under the “optimistic scenario” rug, i.e., “sure, maybe we’d do that if we only expected a pessimistic scenario, but we don’t! And in the optimistic scenario, scaling is pretty much fine, and we can grab more probability mass there so we’re choosing to scale and do the safety we can conditioned on that.” I find this dynamic frustrating. The charitable read on having a uniform prior over outcomes is that you’re taking all viewpoints seriously. The uncharitable read is that it gives you enough free parameters and wiggle room to come to the conclusion that “actually scaling is good” no matter what argument someone levies, because you can always make recourse to a different expected world.
Like, even in pessimistic scenarios (where alignment is nearly impossible), Anthropic still concludes they should be scaling in order to “sound the alarm bell,” despite not saying all that much about how that would work, or if it would work, or making any binding commitments, or saying what precautions they’re taking to make sure they would end up in the “sound the alarm bell” world instead of the “now we’re fucked” world, which are pretty close together. Instead they are taking the action “rapidly scaling systems even though we publicly admit to being in a world where it’s unclear how or when or why different capabilities emerge, nor whether they’ll do so abruptly, and we haven’t figured out how to control these systems in the most basic ways.” I don’t understand how Anthropic thinks this is safe.
The safety model for pushing frontier models as much as Anthropic is doing doesn’t make sense to me. If you’re expecting to be surprised by newer models, that’s bad. We should be aiming to not be surprised, so that we have any hope of managing something that might be much smarter and more powerful than us. The other reasons this blog post lists for working on frontier models seem similarly strange to me, although I’ll leave it here for now. From where I’m at, it doesn’t seem like safety concerns really justify pushing frontier models, and I’d like to hear Anthropic defend this claim more, given that they cite it as one of the main reasons they exist:
“A major reason Anthropic exists as an organization is that we believe it’s necessary to do safety research on ‘frontier’ AI systems.”
(I’d honestly like to be convinced this does make sense, if I’m missing something here).
There’s a unilateralism problem with doing risky stuff in the name of picking up probability mass, where one has knightian uncertainty about whether that probability mass is actually there. If people end up with a reasonable distribution over alignment difficulty, plus some noise, then the people with noise that happened to make their distribution more optimistic will view it as more worth while to trade off accelerated timelines for alignment success in medium-difficulty worlds. Mostly people should just act on their inside view models, but it’s pretty concerning to have another major org trying to have cutting-edge capabilities. The capabilities are going to leak out one way or another and are going to contribute to races.
Doesn’t this part of the comment answer your question?
We can very easily “grab probability mass” in relatively optimistic worlds. From our perspective of assigning non-trivial probability mass to the optimistic worlds, there’s enormous opportunity to do work that, say, one might think moves us from a 20% chance of things going well to a 30% chance of things going well. This makes it the most efficient option on the present margin.
It sounds like they think it’s easier to make progress on research that will help in scenarios where alignment ends up being not that hard. And so they’re focusing there because it seems to be highest EV.
Seems reasonable to me. (Though noting that the full EV analysis would have to take into account how neglected different kinds of research are, and many other factors as well.)
My summary to augment the main one:
Broadly human level AI may be here soon and will have a large impact. Anthropic has a portfolio approach to AI safety, considering both: optimistic scenarios where current techniques are enough for alignment, intermediate scenarios where substantial work is needed, and pessimistic scenarios where alignment is impossible; they do not give a breakdown of probability mass in each bucket and hope that future evidence will help figure out what world we’re in (though see the last quote below). These buckets are helpful for understanding the goal of developing: better techniques for making AI systems safer, and better ways of identifying how safe or unsafe AI systems are. Scaling systems is required for some good safety research, e.g., some problems only arise near human-level, Debate and Constitutional AI need big models, need to understand scaling to understand future risks, if models are dangerous, compelling evidence will be needed.
They do three kinds of research: Capabilities which they don’t publish, Alignment Capabilities which seems mostly about improving chat bots and applying oversight techniques at scale, and Alignment Science which involves interpretability and red-teaming of the approaches developed in Alignment Capabilities. They broadly take an empirical approach to safety, and current research directions include: scaling supervision, mechanistic interpretability, process-oriented learning, testing for dangerous failure modes, evaluating societal impacts, and understanding and evaluating how AI systems learn and generalize.
Select quotes:
“Over the next 5 years we might expect around a 1000x increase in the computation used to train the largest models, based on trends in compute cost and spending. If the scaling laws hold, this would result in a capability jump that is significantly larger than the jump from GPT-2 to GPT-3 (or GPT-3 to Claude). At Anthropic, we’re deeply familiar with the capabilities of these systems and a jump that is this much larger feels to many of us like it could result in human-level performance across most tasks.”
The facts “jointly support a greater than 10% likelihood that we will develop broadly human-level AI systems within the next decade”
“In the near future, we also plan to make externally legible commitments to only develop models beyond a certain capability threshold if safety standards can be met, and to allow an independent, external organization to evaluate both our model’s capabilities and safety.”
“It’s worth noting that the most pessimistic scenarios might look like optimistic scenarios up until very powerful AI systems are created. Taking pessimistic scenarios seriously requires humility and caution in evaluating evidence that systems are safe.”
I’ll note that I’m confused about the Optimistic, Intermediate, and Pessimistic scenarios: how likely does Anthropic think each is? What is the main evidence currently contributing to that world view? How are you actually preparing for near-pessimistic scenarios which “could instead involve channeling our collective efforts towards AI safety research and halting AI progress in the meantime?”
I wouldn’t want to give an “official organizational probability distribution”, but I think collectively we average out to something closer to “a uniform prior over possibilities” without that much evidence thus far updating us from there. Basically, there are plausible stories and intuitions pointing in lots of directions, and no real empirical evidence which bears on it thus far.
(Obviously, within the company, there’s a wide range of views. Some people are very pessimistic. Others are optimistic. We debate this quite a bit internally, and I think that’s really positive! But I think there’s a broad consensus to take the entire range seriously, including the very pessimistic ones.)
This is pretty distinct from how I think many people here see things – ie. I get the sense that many people assign most of their probability mass to what we call pessimistic scenarios – but I also don’t want to give the impression that this means we’re taking the pessimistic scenario lightly. If you believe there’s a ~33% chance of the pessimistic scenario, that’s absolutely terrifying. No potentially catastrophic system should be created without very compelling evidence updating us against this! And of course, the range of scenarios in the intermediate range are also very scary.
At a very high-level, I think our first goal for most pessimistic scenarios is just to be able to recognize that we’re in one! That’s very difficult in itself – in some sense, the thing that makes the most pessimistic scenarios pessimistic is that they’re so difficult to recognize. So we’re working on that.
But before diving into our work on pessimistic scenarios, it’s worth noting that – while a non-trivial portion of our research is directed towards pessimistic scenarios – our research is in some ways more invested in optimistic scenarios at the present moment. There are a few reasons for this:
We can very easily “grab probability mass” in relatively optimistic worlds. From our perspective of assigning non-trivial probability mass to the optimistic worlds, there’s enormous opportunity to do work that, say, one might think moves us from a 20% chance of things going well to a 30% chance of things going well. This makes it the most efficient option on the present margin.
(To be clear, we aren’t saying that everyone should work on medium difficulty scenarios – an important part of our work is also thinking about pessimistic scenarios – but this perspective is one reason we find working on medium difficulty worlds very compelling.)
We believe we learn a lot from empirically trying the obvious ways to address safety and seeing what happens. My colleague Andy likes to say things like “First we tried the dumbest way to solve alignment (prompting), then we tried the second dumbest thing (fine tuning), then we tried the third dumbest thing…” I think there’s a lot to be said for “working our way up the ladder of trying dumb things” and addressing harder and harder scenarios as we do so. Earlier techniques are both building blocks and baselines for further research.
A crucial part of many pessimistic scenarios is that “easy safety techniques” appear to work, but then fail in subtle/abrupt ways. Having the “easy safety techniques” is a prerequisite for trying to empirically investigate this. (For example, you might want to do mechanistic interpretability on sophisticated RLHF models and try to learn what’s going on.) Of course, actually recognizing this will be very hard, as we’re about to discuss. But it’s worth noting that this is a prerequisite for empirical attempts, and we believe those attempts are worth making, even though we aren’t sure they’ll succeed!
We also have a lot of work that I might describe as trying to move from optimistic scenarios towards more intermediate scenarios. This includes our process-oriented learning and scalable supervision agendas.
But what are we doing now to address pessimistic scenarios? (Again, remember that our primary goal for pessimistic scenarios is just to recognize that we’re in one and generate compelling evidence that can persuade the world.)
Our work on mechanistic interpretability is deliberately targeted at trying to fill in holes in our portfolio for pessimistic scenarios. We see this as a high-risk, high-reward bet – it may very well not succeed in time to matter, but if it does, it would be a very powerful tool for determining if we were in a pessimistic scenario and providing compelling evidence to the world. See detailed discussion in the post.
Our Testing for Dangerous Failure Modes (eg. trying to find evidence of things like situational awareness from the outside of models) work is useful in a range of scenarios, but seems helpful in a lot of quite pessimistic ones. I think it’s easy to dismiss this work on the basis that, of course, models will just deceive you. But there are a lot of very sophisticated ideas for how to get around this.
One idea is that models may try to deceive you before they can do so effectively. This could be smaller models, or large models earlier in training. (This could even include detecting hints of deceptive behavior in the logits, before it becomes likely behavior!)
Another more complex one is to think of treacherous turns as being kind of like a phase change, and to try to introduce control variables that expand the problem to more dimensions and allow you to safely observe treacherous turns. (For example, you might deliberately give a model weaker supervision in order to see if misalignment develops in weaker models, and then study how this changes as a function of both model capacity and supervision strength.)
A lot of our work in this area involves studying “model organisms” of these failure modes so that we can understand them in models that are much less capable than their overseers.
Our work on Understanding Generalization also aims to provide tools for understanding why models behave the way they do, which might help us recognize deceptively aligned models.
To be clear, we think pessimistic scenarios are, well, pessimistic and hard! These are our best preliminary attempts at agendas for addressing them, and we expect to change and expand as we learn more. Additionally, as we make progress on the more optimistic scenarios, I expect the number of projects we have targeted on pessimistic scenarios to increase.
The weird thing about a portfolio approach is that the things it makes sense to work on in “optimistic scenarios” often trade off against those you’d want to work on in more “pessimistic scenarios,” and I don’t feel like this is really addressed.
Like, if we’re living in an optimistic world where it’s pretty chill to scale up quickly, and things like deception are either pretty obvious or not all that consequential, and alignment is close to default, then sure, pushing frontier models is fine. But if we’re in a world where the problem is nearly impossible, alignment is nowhere close to default, and/or things like deception happen in an abrupt way, then the actions Anthropic is taking (e.g., rapidly scaling models) are really risky.
This is part of what seems weird to me about Anthropic’s safety plan. It seems like the major bet the company is making is that getting empirical feedback from frontier systems is going to help solve alignment. Much of that justification (afaict from the Core Views post) is because Anthropic expects to be surprised by what emerges in larger models. For instance, as this Anthropic paper mentions: models can’t do 3 digit addition basically at all (close to 0% test accuracy) until all of the sudden, as you scale the model slightly, they can (0% to 80% accuracy abruptly). I presume the safety model here is something like: if you can’t make much progress on problems without empirical feedback, and if you can’t get the empirical feedback unless the capability is present to work with, and if capabilities (or their precursors) only emerge at certain scales, then scaling is a bottleneck to alignment progress.
I’m not convinced by those claims, but I think that even if I were, I would have a very different sense of what to do here. Like, it seems to me that our current state of knowledge about how and why specific capabilities emerge (and when they do) is pretty close to “we have no idea.” That means we are pretty close to having no idea about when and how and why dangerous capabilities might emerge, nor whether they’ll do so continuously or abruptly.
My impression is that Dario agrees with this:
If I put on the “we need empirical feedback from neural nets to make progress on alignment” hat, along with my “prudence” hat, I’m thinking things more like, “okay let’s stop scaling now, and just work really hard on figuring out how exactly capabilities emerged between e.g., GPT-3 and GPT-4. Like, what exactly can we predict about GPT-4 based on GPT-3? Can we break down surprising and abrupt less-scary capabilities into understandable parts, and generalize from that to more-scary capabilities?” Basically, I’m hoping for a bunch more proof of concept that Anthropic is capable of understanding and controlling current systems, before they scale blindly. If they can’t do it now, why should I expect they’ll be able to do it then?
My guess is that a bunch of these concerns are getting swept under the “optimistic scenario” rug, i.e., “sure, maybe we’d do that if we only expected a pessimistic scenario, but we don’t! And in the optimistic scenario, scaling is pretty much fine, and we can grab more probability mass there so we’re choosing to scale and do the safety we can conditioned on that.” I find this dynamic frustrating. The charitable read on having a uniform prior over outcomes is that you’re taking all viewpoints seriously. The uncharitable read is that it gives you enough free parameters and wiggle room to come to the conclusion that “actually scaling is good” no matter what argument someone levies, because you can always make recourse to a different expected world.
Like, even in pessimistic scenarios (where alignment is nearly impossible), Anthropic still concludes they should be scaling in order to “sound the alarm bell,” despite not saying all that much about how that would work, or if it would work, or making any binding commitments, or saying what precautions they’re taking to make sure they would end up in the “sound the alarm bell” world instead of the “now we’re fucked” world, which are pretty close together. Instead they are taking the action “rapidly scaling systems even though we publicly admit to being in a world where it’s unclear how or when or why different capabilities emerge, nor whether they’ll do so abruptly, and we haven’t figured out how to control these systems in the most basic ways.” I don’t understand how Anthropic thinks this is safe.
The safety model for pushing frontier models as much as Anthropic is doing doesn’t make sense to me. If you’re expecting to be surprised by newer models, that’s bad. We should be aiming to not be surprised, so that we have any hope of managing something that might be much smarter and more powerful than us. The other reasons this blog post lists for working on frontier models seem similarly strange to me, although I’ll leave it here for now. From where I’m at, it doesn’t seem like safety concerns really justify pushing frontier models, and I’d like to hear Anthropic defend this claim more, given that they cite it as one of the main reasons they exist:
(I’d honestly like to be convinced this does make sense, if I’m missing something here).
There’s a unilateralism problem with doing risky stuff in the name of picking up probability mass, where one has knightian uncertainty about whether that probability mass is actually there. If people end up with a reasonable distribution over alignment difficulty, plus some noise, then the people with noise that happened to make their distribution more optimistic will view it as more worth while to trade off accelerated timelines for alignment success in medium-difficulty worlds. Mostly people should just act on their inside view models, but it’s pretty concerning to have another major org trying to have cutting-edge capabilities. The capabilities are going to leak out one way or another and are going to contribute to races.
What are the strategic reasons for prioritizing work on intermediate difficulty problems and “easy safety techniques” at this time?
Doesn’t this part of the comment answer your question?
It sounds like they think it’s easier to make progress on research that will help in scenarios where alignment ends up being not that hard. And so they’re focusing there because it seems to be highest EV.
Seems reasonable to me. (Though noting that the full EV analysis would have to take into account how neglected different kinds of research are, and many other factors as well.)