Attachment theory is a psychological theory that has gained an important place in child development literature, especially since the mid-20th century. First developed by British psychiatrist John Bowlby, the theory suggests that the emotional bonds that children form with their primary caregivers deeply affect their social, emotional and cognitive development in later life. According to John Bowlby, attachment stems from children’s need for survival as part of human evolution and is an innate necessity. Attachment theory has a great importance on child development especially since the mid-20th century. In this theory, the bond that children establish with their primary caregivers plays an important role in their emotional, social and cognitive development. The attachment theory, which is the product of the joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, was created with its basic principles, but at this point, John Bowlby’s work was further developed by his student Mary Ainsworth with the methodology he applied. Ainsworth developed the ‘Strange Situation’ experiment to understand the diversity of attachment relationships and how children develop as a result of these relationships. In this experiment, a child was separated from his/her caregiver for a short period of time and then reunited with him/her. Ainsworth classified attachment styles into four main groups according to children’s reactions to their caregivers. As a result of this experiment, attachment styles were determined as secure, anxious/ambivalent attachment, avoidant and disorganised attachment. In studies conducted in Europe, the extent to which these classifications are effective in both social relationships and psychological health of children in their future lives has been investigated in depth.
This article, starting from the development of attachment theory, will discuss the effects of secure attachment on child development within the framework of both theoretical and current research in Europe.
Attachment behaviours are behavioural patterns that an infant develops in order to establish a relationship of trust and closeness with primary caregivers. These behaviours help the infant to express its physical and emotional needs and are critical for its survival in the first months of its life. Below, the main attachment behaviours developed by the baby are explained in detail:
1. Sucking
Sucking behaviour is an attachment behaviour that is used not only to ensure that the infant is fed, but also to cope with stress and relax. Babies are born with a strong sucking reflex from the moment they are born. This reflex is necessary to ensure their survival. However, babies want to suck their mother’s breast not only when they are hungry but also when they feel the need for emotional comfort. Especially in modern societies, babies develop alternatives such as pacifiers or finger sucking if continuous breastfeeding is not always possible. Finger sucking or pacifiers help the baby to calm itself down and act as a defence mechanism against stress.
2. Snuggling/nibbling
Babies have an innate reflex to get physically close to their carers. This snuggling behaviour is important for the baby to feel safe and to meet physical needs such as warmth and touch. Infants seek reassurance by snuggling with their caregivers, especially when they encounter stressful, frightening or unknown situations. Physical closeness helps to create a strong bond between the baby and the caregiver and helps the baby to calm down.
3. gaze
From the moment they are born, babies tend to make eye contact and follow facial expressions. This is one of the earliest signs of their social attachment behaviour. A baby tries to understand the emotional state of its mother or caregiver, especially by focusing on her face. Gaze is one of the first steps in a baby’s social development and helps them to establish an emotional bond with their caregivers. Eye contact is a powerful signal that makes the baby feel safe and encourages interaction.
4. Smile
Smiling is another important attachment behaviour for infants. Infants smile from early on to attract the attention of their caregivers and to establish a positive interaction with them. By smiling, especially at the face of the caregiver, an infant expects to get a reaction from the other person. This interaction strengthens the emotional bond between the baby and the caregiver and helps the baby to feel valued and loved. Smiling is also one of the first steps in social development and pre-linguistic communication.
5. Crying
Crying is one of the most basic ways for a baby to express negative emotions such as stress, hunger, tiredness or discomfort. Crying allows the baby to demand help and attention from the caregiver. This behaviour plays a critical role in the baby’s survival because crying allows the caregiver to intervene when there is danger or discomfort. Responsive responses to crying are important for the baby to develop secure attachment. If the caregiver responds to the infant’s needs in a timely and consistent manner, the infant feels safe and develops a secure attachment relationship. These attachment behaviours are natural responses to ensure the infant’s physical and emotional safety in the first months of life. Each of these behaviours is nurtured by the sensitivity and consistency of the caregiver and forms the basis of a secure attachment.
To better understand the importance of these attachment behaviours, it is useful to look at Mary Ainsworth’s famous Strange Situation experiment. In this experiment, Ainsworth defined four basic attachment styles by observing the relationships and attachment styles of infants with their caregivers. Let’s discuss these attachment styles in detail:
1. Secure Attachment
Secure attachment is characterised by the child’s trust in the caregiver. Securely attached children are more courageous in exploring their environment when their caregiver is with them, but experience mild anxiety when their caregiver leaves. These children are relieved when their caregivers return and re-establish a secure relationship. This type of attachment is usually associated with responsive and consistent caregivers. Babies with a secure attachment style develop a strong and secure relationship with their caregivers. These babies are relaxed and open to exploration when their mother is with them. They become anxious when their mother leaves the room, but quickly calm down when she returns.
Characteristics:
The baby trusts the caregiver.
In stressful moments, it is comforted by the presence of the caregiver.
Reliability and consistency of the caregiver supports this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Germany, it was observed that secure attachment increases children’s social skills and academic success at school. Securely attached children were found to establish healthier relationships and develop higher self-esteem in later life. In another study conducted in the UK, secure attachment was found to have positive effects on children’s long-term emotional health. Studies have shown that children who develop secure attachment are more successful at school and more skilful in social relationships.
2. Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment
Children with this attachment style experience anxiety and uncertainty about their caregivers’ inconsistent behaviours. These children become extremely restless when they leave their caregivers and this restlessness continues when they return. Despite the return of their caregivers, they do not relax and constantly expect attention. Anxious/ambivalent attachment is often associated with irregular and inconsistent care. Babies with this attachment style are restless even when their mother is in the room and the mother’s departure causes them a lot of stress. They both want to hug their mother and resist her when she returns.
Characteristics:
The infant is overly dependent on the caregiver.
It has difficulty coping with separation.
Inconsistent reactions of the caregiver develops this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Italy, it was found that children with anxious/ambivalent attachment style had more anxiety and low self-esteem problems in their later life. It was observed that these children were more timid in social environments and reacted more sensitively to stressful situations. Another study conducted in France showed that children with anxious attachment style are more likely to experience psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety, especially during adolescence. Studies conducted in Germany have shown that children with anxious attachment style tend to experience trust problems and addiction problems in adulthood.
3. Avoidant Attachment
Children with this attachment style experience anxiety and uncertainty about their caregivers’ inconsistent behaviours. These children become extremely restless when they leave their caregivers and this restlessness continues when they return. Despite the return of their caregivers, they do not relax and expect constant attention. Babies with an avoidant attachment style show little emotional response when their mother leaves the room or returns. They avoid physical contact with their mother and prefer to spend time on their own.
Characteristics:
The infant is emotionally distant from the caregiver.
Independence is at the forefront and emotional needs take a back seat.
The caregiver being emotionally distant or cold reinforces this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: Studies conducted in the Netherlands have revealed that children with avoidant attachment style tend to have problems in social relationships. It has been observed that these children have difficulty in establishing emotional bonds and building trust, especially in close relationships. In addition, another study conducted in Germany revealed that children with avoidant attachment style tend to be more distant and individualistic in work environments in adulthood. Studies have shown that individuals with avoidant attachment style establish less close relationships in adulthood and generally prefer to work alone.
4. Disorganised Attachment
Disorganised attachment is characterised by confused, contradictory and disorganised reactions of the child to the caregiver. These children have a relationship with their caregivers that involves both trust and fear. This type of attachment usually develops with traumatic or abusive caregivers. Children with this attachment style experience great stress when they leave their caregivers but are unable to establish a secure relationship when they return. Babies with a disorganised attachment style show contradictory and erratic behaviour in their relationship with their mother. When their caregiver returns to the room, they both want to approach her and appear to be afraid of her. This is often associated with traumatised or neglectful caregivers.
Characteristics:
The infant both wants to trust and feels fearful of the caregiver.
Exhibits conflicting emotions and erratic behaviour.
Traumatic, neglectful or abusive caregivers lead to this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Sweden, it was found that children with disorganised attachment were more likely to develop serious behavioural disorders in the future. In particular, problems such as criminal behaviour and substance abuse were found to be more common in individuals with this type of attachment style. In addition, a study conducted in Norway showed that disorganised attachment is common among children with a history of trauma and neglect, and that these children have serious difficulties in emotional regulation.
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment is an important tool for understanding the attachment styles that infants form with their caregivers. These attachment styles directly affect the child’s lifelong emotional development and social relationships. Secure attachment supports healthy psychosocial development, whereas indifferent, avoidant attachment may pave the way for various psychological and social problems that may be encountered in the future. European research also supports these findings and demonstrates the long-term effects of attachment styles. Now, let’s take a more detailed look at the characteristics of secure attachment and its effects on child development.
Characteristics of secure attachment and its effects on child development
A securely attached child explores his/her environment more easily by trusting his/her caregiver and is more open to new experiences. It is possible to examine the effects of secure attachment on child development under the following headings:
Emotional Development: Securely attached children are more emotionally balanced. Consistent and loving support from the caregiver improves the child’s ability to cope with stress. Studies conducted in Europe have shown that securely attached children show fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety during adolescence.
Social Development: Secure attachment also supports children’s ability to establish healthy relationships with others. Securely attached children are more successful in cooperating and empathising with their peers. Especially studies conducted in Sweden show that securely attached children take a more active role in group activities.
Cognitive Development: Secure attachment supports children’s problem-solving skills and creativity. Since children are more courageous in exploring their environment, their cognitive development is also positively affected in this process. A long-term study conducted in Germany revealed that children with secure attachment have higher school success.
Research on Attachment in Europe
Studies on attachment theory have created a large literature in Europe. For example, the studies conducted by Grossmann et al. in Germany are among the important studies examining the long-term effects of attachment styles. In these studies, it has been observed that securely attached children establish healthier and long-term relationships in adulthood. In addition, studies conducted in Scandinavian countries have shown that secure attachment increases children’s self-confidence and independence.
Another important study is the meta-analysis conducted by Van IJzendoorn and Juffer in the Netherlands. This analysis compared the effects of different attachment styles on child development and revealed that secure attachment has significantly positive effects on children’s social and emotional development.
Attachment and Modern Family Structures
Today, family structures and care models are changing. Especially in families with two working parents, studies on how children’s bonds with caregivers are affected are increasing. Children’s emotional and social development has also gained a new dimension with the introduction of technology and social media into our lives. These changes may create new factors in children’s secure attachment development processes.
Studies conducted especially in France have examined the effects of the time children spend in daycare centres on secure attachment. In these studies, it was observed that children’s chances of developing secure attachment increased when high quality care was provided in daycare centres.
In conclusion, attachment theory plays a critical role in understanding and supporting children’s developmental processes. Secure attachment positively affects the emotional, social and cognitive development of the child and provides an important basis for becoming a healthy individual. A secure attachment relationship provides children with the opportunity to feel valued and loved, develop social skills and encourage them to explore their environment.
Extensive research in Europe has shown that secure attachment contributes to children having healthier relationships, higher self-esteem and fewer psychological problems in later life. These findings once again emphasise the importance of the bonds that parents and caregivers form with children.
In this context, it is necessary to pay more attention to child development in society and to raise awareness of families on this issue. In order to provide children with a secure attachment environment, the joint efforts of parents, educators and society are of great importance. The healthy growth of children is of critical importance not only for their individual development but also for the general welfare of the society.
Sources
- Yavuzer, H. (2014). Child Psychology. Remzi Bookstore
- Köknel, Ö. (2010). Developmental Psychology. Psychologists Association Publications
- İkiz, E & Dönmez, M. (2015). Psychological Development and Education. Nobel Academic Publishing
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss:Volume I. Attachment. Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss:Volume II. Separation. Basic Books.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for Identifying Infants as Disorganised/Disoriented During the Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years:Theory, Research, and Intervention. University of Chicago Press.
- Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., & Kindler, H. (2005). The Role of Early Attachment Relationships in the Development of the Social Competence of Children. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within Families:Mutual Influences
- Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2006). The Benefits of Being Securely Attached: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Attachment Security on Social and Cognitive Development. Child Development
- Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1985). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. In M. Lewis & C. Feiring (Eds.), Children’s Social and Emotional Development
- Egeland, B., & Farber, E. A. (1984). Infant-Mother Attachment: Factors Related to Its Development and Its Effects on Subsequent Development. Child Development,
- Fearon, R. M. P., & Belsky, J. (2011). Attachment and the Origins of Prosocial Behaviour and Aggression. Attachment & Human Development
Attachment THEORY AND THE EFFECTS OF SECURE ATTACHMENT ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Attachment theory is a psychological theory that has gained an important place in child development literature, especially since the mid-20th century. First developed by British psychiatrist John Bowlby, the theory suggests that the emotional bonds that children form with their primary caregivers deeply affect their social, emotional and cognitive development in later life. According to John Bowlby, attachment stems from children’s need for survival as part of human evolution and is an innate necessity. Attachment theory has a great importance on child development especially since the mid-20th century. In this theory, the bond that children establish with their primary caregivers plays an important role in their emotional, social and cognitive development. The attachment theory, which is the product of the joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, was created with its basic principles, but at this point, John Bowlby’s work was further developed by his student Mary Ainsworth with the methodology he applied. Ainsworth developed the ‘Strange Situation’ experiment to understand the diversity of attachment relationships and how children develop as a result of these relationships. In this experiment, a child was separated from his/her caregiver for a short period of time and then reunited with him/her. Ainsworth classified attachment styles into four main groups according to children’s reactions to their caregivers. As a result of this experiment, attachment styles were determined as secure, anxious/ambivalent attachment, avoidant and disorganised attachment. In studies conducted in Europe, the extent to which these classifications are effective in both social relationships and psychological health of children in their future lives has been investigated in depth.
This article, starting from the development of attachment theory, will discuss the effects of secure attachment on child development within the framework of both theoretical and current research in Europe.
Attachment behaviours are behavioural patterns that an infant develops in order to establish a relationship of trust and closeness with primary caregivers. These behaviours help the infant to express its physical and emotional needs and are critical for its survival in the first months of its life. Below, the main attachment behaviours developed by the baby are explained in detail:
1. Sucking
Sucking behaviour is an attachment behaviour that is used not only to ensure that the infant is fed, but also to cope with stress and relax. Babies are born with a strong sucking reflex from the moment they are born. This reflex is necessary to ensure their survival. However, babies want to suck their mother’s breast not only when they are hungry but also when they feel the need for emotional comfort. Especially in modern societies, babies develop alternatives such as pacifiers or finger sucking if continuous breastfeeding is not always possible. Finger sucking or pacifiers help the baby to calm itself down and act as a defence mechanism against stress.
2. Snuggling/nibbling
Babies have an innate reflex to get physically close to their carers. This snuggling behaviour is important for the baby to feel safe and to meet physical needs such as warmth and touch. Infants seek reassurance by snuggling with their caregivers, especially when they encounter stressful, frightening or unknown situations. Physical closeness helps to create a strong bond between the baby and the caregiver and helps the baby to calm down.
3. gaze
From the moment they are born, babies tend to make eye contact and follow facial expressions. This is one of the earliest signs of their social attachment behaviour. A baby tries to understand the emotional state of its mother or caregiver, especially by focusing on her face. Gaze is one of the first steps in a baby’s social development and helps them to establish an emotional bond with their caregivers. Eye contact is a powerful signal that makes the baby feel safe and encourages interaction.
4. Smile
Smiling is another important attachment behaviour for infants. Infants smile from early on to attract the attention of their caregivers and to establish a positive interaction with them. By smiling, especially at the face of the caregiver, an infant expects to get a reaction from the other person. This interaction strengthens the emotional bond between the baby and the caregiver and helps the baby to feel valued and loved. Smiling is also one of the first steps in social development and pre-linguistic communication.
5. Crying
Crying is one of the most basic ways for a baby to express negative emotions such as stress, hunger, tiredness or discomfort. Crying allows the baby to demand help and attention from the caregiver. This behaviour plays a critical role in the baby’s survival because crying allows the caregiver to intervene when there is danger or discomfort. Responsive responses to crying are important for the baby to develop secure attachment. If the caregiver responds to the infant’s needs in a timely and consistent manner, the infant feels safe and develops a secure attachment relationship. These attachment behaviours are natural responses to ensure the infant’s physical and emotional safety in the first months of life. Each of these behaviours is nurtured by the sensitivity and consistency of the caregiver and forms the basis of a secure attachment.
To better understand the importance of these attachment behaviours, it is useful to look at Mary Ainsworth’s famous Strange Situation experiment. In this experiment, Ainsworth defined four basic attachment styles by observing the relationships and attachment styles of infants with their caregivers. Let’s discuss these attachment styles in detail:
1. Secure Attachment
Secure attachment is characterised by the child’s trust in the caregiver. Securely attached children are more courageous in exploring their environment when their caregiver is with them, but experience mild anxiety when their caregiver leaves. These children are relieved when their caregivers return and re-establish a secure relationship. This type of attachment is usually associated with responsive and consistent caregivers. Babies with a secure attachment style develop a strong and secure relationship with their caregivers. These babies are relaxed and open to exploration when their mother is with them. They become anxious when their mother leaves the room, but quickly calm down when she returns.
Characteristics:
The baby trusts the caregiver.
In stressful moments, it is comforted by the presence of the caregiver.
Reliability and consistency of the caregiver supports this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Germany, it was observed that secure attachment increases children’s social skills and academic success at school. Securely attached children were found to establish healthier relationships and develop higher self-esteem in later life. In another study conducted in the UK, secure attachment was found to have positive effects on children’s long-term emotional health. Studies have shown that children who develop secure attachment are more successful at school and more skilful in social relationships.
2. Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment
Children with this attachment style experience anxiety and uncertainty about their caregivers’ inconsistent behaviours. These children become extremely restless when they leave their caregivers and this restlessness continues when they return. Despite the return of their caregivers, they do not relax and constantly expect attention. Anxious/ambivalent attachment is often associated with irregular and inconsistent care. Babies with this attachment style are restless even when their mother is in the room and the mother’s departure causes them a lot of stress. They both want to hug their mother and resist her when she returns.
Characteristics:
The infant is overly dependent on the caregiver.
It has difficulty coping with separation.
Inconsistent reactions of the caregiver develops this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Italy, it was found that children with anxious/ambivalent attachment style had more anxiety and low self-esteem problems in their later life. It was observed that these children were more timid in social environments and reacted more sensitively to stressful situations. Another study conducted in France showed that children with anxious attachment style are more likely to experience psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety, especially during adolescence. Studies conducted in Germany have shown that children with anxious attachment style tend to experience trust problems and addiction problems in adulthood.
3. Avoidant Attachment
Children with this attachment style experience anxiety and uncertainty about their caregivers’ inconsistent behaviours. These children become extremely restless when they leave their caregivers and this restlessness continues when they return. Despite the return of their caregivers, they do not relax and expect constant attention. Babies with an avoidant attachment style show little emotional response when their mother leaves the room or returns. They avoid physical contact with their mother and prefer to spend time on their own.
Characteristics:
The infant is emotionally distant from the caregiver.
Independence is at the forefront and emotional needs take a back seat.
The caregiver being emotionally distant or cold reinforces this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: Studies conducted in the Netherlands have revealed that children with avoidant attachment style tend to have problems in social relationships. It has been observed that these children have difficulty in establishing emotional bonds and building trust, especially in close relationships. In addition, another study conducted in Germany revealed that children with avoidant attachment style tend to be more distant and individualistic in work environments in adulthood. Studies have shown that individuals with avoidant attachment style establish less close relationships in adulthood and generally prefer to work alone.
4. Disorganised Attachment
Disorganised attachment is characterised by confused, contradictory and disorganised reactions of the child to the caregiver. These children have a relationship with their caregivers that involves both trust and fear. This type of attachment usually develops with traumatic or abusive caregivers. Children with this attachment style experience great stress when they leave their caregivers but are unable to establish a secure relationship when they return. Babies with a disorganised attachment style show contradictory and erratic behaviour in their relationship with their mother. When their caregiver returns to the room, they both want to approach her and appear to be afraid of her. This is often associated with traumatised or neglectful caregivers.
Characteristics:
The infant both wants to trust and feels fearful of the caregiver.
Exhibits conflicting emotions and erratic behaviour.
Traumatic, neglectful or abusive caregivers lead to this attachment style.
Examples from Europe: In a study conducted in Sweden, it was found that children with disorganised attachment were more likely to develop serious behavioural disorders in the future. In particular, problems such as criminal behaviour and substance abuse were found to be more common in individuals with this type of attachment style. In addition, a study conducted in Norway showed that disorganised attachment is common among children with a history of trauma and neglect, and that these children have serious difficulties in emotional regulation.
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment is an important tool for understanding the attachment styles that infants form with their caregivers. These attachment styles directly affect the child’s lifelong emotional development and social relationships. Secure attachment supports healthy psychosocial development, whereas indifferent, avoidant attachment may pave the way for various psychological and social problems that may be encountered in the future. European research also supports these findings and demonstrates the long-term effects of attachment styles. Now, let’s take a more detailed look at the characteristics of secure attachment and its effects on child development.
Characteristics of secure attachment and its effects on child development
A securely attached child explores his/her environment more easily by trusting his/her caregiver and is more open to new experiences. It is possible to examine the effects of secure attachment on child development under the following headings:
Emotional Development: Securely attached children are more emotionally balanced. Consistent and loving support from the caregiver improves the child’s ability to cope with stress. Studies conducted in Europe have shown that securely attached children show fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety during adolescence.
Social Development: Secure attachment also supports children’s ability to establish healthy relationships with others. Securely attached children are more successful in cooperating and empathising with their peers. Especially studies conducted in Sweden show that securely attached children take a more active role in group activities.
Cognitive Development: Secure attachment supports children’s problem-solving skills and creativity. Since children are more courageous in exploring their environment, their cognitive development is also positively affected in this process. A long-term study conducted in Germany revealed that children with secure attachment have higher school success.
Research on Attachment in Europe
Studies on attachment theory have created a large literature in Europe. For example, the studies conducted by Grossmann et al. in Germany are among the important studies examining the long-term effects of attachment styles. In these studies, it has been observed that securely attached children establish healthier and long-term relationships in adulthood. In addition, studies conducted in Scandinavian countries have shown that secure attachment increases children’s self-confidence and independence.
Another important study is the meta-analysis conducted by Van IJzendoorn and Juffer in the Netherlands. This analysis compared the effects of different attachment styles on child development and revealed that secure attachment has significantly positive effects on children’s social and emotional development.
Attachment and Modern Family Structures
Today, family structures and care models are changing. Especially in families with two working parents, studies on how children’s bonds with caregivers are affected are increasing. Children’s emotional and social development has also gained a new dimension with the introduction of technology and social media into our lives. These changes may create new factors in children’s secure attachment development processes.
Studies conducted especially in France have examined the effects of the time children spend in daycare centres on secure attachment. In these studies, it was observed that children’s chances of developing secure attachment increased when high quality care was provided in daycare centres.
In conclusion, attachment theory plays a critical role in understanding and supporting children’s developmental processes. Secure attachment positively affects the emotional, social and cognitive development of the child and provides an important basis for becoming a healthy individual. A secure attachment relationship provides children with the opportunity to feel valued and loved, develop social skills and encourage them to explore their environment.
Extensive research in Europe has shown that secure attachment contributes to children having healthier relationships, higher self-esteem and fewer psychological problems in later life. These findings once again emphasise the importance of the bonds that parents and caregivers form with children.
In this context, it is necessary to pay more attention to child development in society and to raise awareness of families on this issue. In order to provide children with a secure attachment environment, the joint efforts of parents, educators and society are of great importance. The healthy growth of children is of critical importance not only for their individual development but also for the general welfare of the society.
Sources
- Yavuzer, H. (2014). Child Psychology. Remzi Bookstore
- Köknel, Ö. (2010). Developmental Psychology. Psychologists Association Publications
- İkiz, E & Dönmez, M. (2015). Psychological Development and Education. Nobel Academic Publishing
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Volume I. Attachment. Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss: Volume II. Separation. Basic Books.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for Identifying Infants as Disorganised/Disoriented During the Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention. University of Chicago Press.
- Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., & Kindler, H. (2005). The Role of Early Attachment Relationships in the Development of the Social Competence of Children. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within Families: Mutual Influences
- Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2006). The Benefits of Being Securely Attached: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Attachment Security on Social and Cognitive Development. Child Development
- Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1985). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. In M. Lewis & C. Feiring (Eds.), Children’s Social and Emotional Development
- Egeland, B., & Farber, E. A. (1984). Infant-Mother Attachment: Factors Related to Its Development and Its Effects on Subsequent Development. Child Development,
- Fearon, R. M. P., & Belsky, J. (2011). Attachment and the Origins of Prosocial Behaviour and Aggression. Attachment & Human Development